Assessing the effects of Mucuna Pruriens in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease: A Review

Archana Kumbar; Dev Nath Singh Gautam

doi:10.21760/jaims.10.6.23

E-ISSN:2456-3110

Review Article

Parkinson's Disease

Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences

2025 Volume 10 Number 6 JUNE

Publisher

www.maharshicharaka.in

Assessing the effects of Mucuna Pruriens in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease: A Review

Kumbar A¹, Gautam DNS^2*

DOI:10.21760/jaims.10.6.23

¹ Archana Kumbar, Research Scholar, Dept of Rasa Shastra and Bhaishajya Kalpana, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

^2* Dev Nath Singh Gautam, Professor, Dept of Rasa Shastra and Bhaishajya Kalpana, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Mucuna pruriens (Mp) is one of the most widely used medicinal plants in Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine. Recognized for its high nutritional value, Mp has long been an important food source in Asia, the Americas, and various African countries. Additionally, it serves as a cover crop and animal fodder. Traditionally, Mp has been employed as an antivenom for snake bites. Research suggests that it possesses numerous beneficial properties, including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-epileptic, and anti-microbial activities. It is also commonly used as a potent aphrodisiac.Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurological disorder characterized by the gradual degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, leading to movement impairments such as resting tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. The anti-Parkinsonian potential of Mp has been investigated since the 19thcentury, with various studies highlighting its neuroprotective effects. Levodopa (L-DOPA), a key phytoconstituent of Mp, is primarily responsible for its anti-PD properties. Besides L-DOPA, other bioactive compounds present in Mp exhibit antioxidant and neuroprotective effects.This review explores the ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemistry, and anti-PD potential of Mp based on available literature, including preclinical studies and select clinical trials involving PD patients. Furthermore, it underscores the significance of Mp in PD management through a comprehensive analysis of existing research. These insights may contribute to the development of future therapeutic strategies for more effective PD treatment.

Keywords: Mucuna pruriens, Ayurveda, Parkinson’s disease, Neuroprotective

Corresponding Author	How to Cite this Article	To Browse
Dev Nath Singh Gautam, Professor, Dept of Rasa Shastra and Bhaishajya Kalpana, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email:	Kumbar A, Gautam DNS, Assessing the effects of Mucuna Pruriens in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease: A Review. J Ayu Int Med Sci. 2025;10(6):167-187. Available From https://jaims.in/jaims/article/view/4457/

Manuscript Received	Review Round 1	Review Round 2	Review Round 3	Accepted
2025-05-11	2025-05-24	2025-06-04	2025-06-14	2025-06-24
Conflict of Interest	Funding	Ethical Approval	Plagiarism X-checker	Note
None	Nil	Not required	12.32

© 2025 by Kumbar A, Gautam DNS and Published by Maharshi Charaka Ayurveda Organization. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ unported [CC BY 4.0].

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Download PDF Back To Article Introduction Materials and Methods Conclusion References

Archana K et al. Effect of Mucuna Pruriens in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Introduction

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a degenerative neurological condition that affects movement. PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, second to the Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This movement disorder is characterized by the gradual degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN), leading to dopamine depletion in the striatum (SN). A key pathological feature of PD is the formation of Lewy bodies (LB) due to the accumulation of abnormal α-synuclein protein. The resulting dopamine deficiency in the basal ganglia manifests as motor dysfunction, including bradykinesia, akinesia, gait disturbances, and resting tremors. Non-motor symptoms, such as cognitive decline, typically emerge about a decade after the onset of motor impairments.^[1]PD is the most rapidly increasing neurological disorder, with its prevalence, disability, and mortality rates rising significantly. The aging population plays a major role in this growth. Current estimates suggest that over 6.2 million people worldwide are affected by PD, and projections indicate this number will surpass 12 million by 2040.^[2]

The current approach to PD treatment focuses on restoring optimal dopamine (DA) levels and its associated signaling pathways. This is achieved by administering Levodopa (L-DOPA), or L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, a precursor to DA. While L-DOPA initially helps slow disease progression, its long-term efficacy is limited. To mitigate its side effects, primarily gastrointestinal and cardiovascular issues, it is often prescribed alongside carbidopa, a peripheral decarboxylase inhibitor.^[3]

Despite advancements in pharmacological treatments, many patients continue to experience worsening disability and a decline in quality of life where healthcare providers face substantial challenges in managing the condition. Given these persistent difficulties, PD management has expanded to include complementary and alternative therapies.

Mp also referred to as "velvet bean" and known as "Atmagupta" in India, is a climbing legume widely found in India and various tropical regions, including Central and South America. Its medicinal use dates back to ancient times, with records indicating its application in treating medical conditions as early as 1500 BC.

In Ayurveda there are reference of using Mucuna seed in treating a disorder similar to PD.^[3] It is also a valuable food source due to its high content of crude protein, essential fatty acids, starch, and vital amino acids.

Additionally, it contains various antinutritional factors, including protease inhibitors, total phenolics, oligosaccharides, and certain cyclitols with anti-diabetic properties. Nearly all parts of the plant demonstrate significant medicinal potential, with L-DOPA (5%) being its primary phenolic compound.^[4]

L-DOPA (5%) is the primary phenolic compound present in Mp, with concentrations ranging from approximately 3.02% to 4.72%, as determined through the HPTLC method.^[5]

There is growing interest in utilizing nutrition and plant extracts as therapeutic strategies to support individuals with PD. These approaches capitalize on the anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antioxidant properties of certain dietary elements and plant compounds to help mitigate neuronal damage and enhance dopaminergic function beyond conventional treatments.

Numerous studies have provided strong evidence suggesting that specific phytochemicals and nutritional components may play a role in influencing the progression of PD through various mechanisms. Mp has been extensively researched for its neuroprotective effects in various Parkinsonian models. Studies have shown its effectiveness in combating neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, helping to safeguard neurons from degeneration. This review provides an overview of the medicinal properties of Mucuna pruriens, with a focus on studies examining the therapeutic potential against PD& its models.

Materials and Methods

An extensive literature search was carried out manually with online publications from PubMed (NIH)and Google Scholar. Specific terms like “neuroprotective”, “Mucuna pruriens”, “Kapikachu”, “velvet bean”, “Parkinson’s disease” using conjugation OR/AND and also search related to geographical distribution, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology of M. pruriens. The search was mainly focused on preclinical & clinical use of Mp with respect toPD.

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Growth and Geographical Distribution

Mucuna pruriens (L) Dc. is a fast-growing, annual climbing legume that can reach heights of 3 to 18 meters (Figure 1). Native to tropical regions, it is particularly prevalent in Africa, India, and the West Indies. This species is widely distributed across much of the Indian subcontinent, thriving in bushes, hedges, and dry-deciduous lowland forests throughout the plains of India.^[6]

India is home to 14 species of Mucuna, which are distributed across diverse regions, including the foothills of the Himalayas, the plains of West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. These species are also found in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, as well as in Sri Lanka.^[7]

Figure 1: M. pruriens A) Natural Habitat B) Dried seeds C) Pods

Traditional Use^[8]

The traditional uses of Mp are well documented, anyhow it was used as a green manure crop in tropical regions as it has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, enriching the soil and improving fertility.^[9]Parts used are seed, leaves & root. For generations, tribal communities have utilized the plant and its extracts as a natural remedy for snakebites. In Asia, America, Africa & Pacific Islands it is a source of food i.e. pods are used as a vegetable and young leaves as animal fodder.^[10]Mp has a rich history in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, traditionally the seeds are used to treat conditions such as worms, dysentery, diarrhea, snakebite, sexual debility, cough, tuberculosis, impotence, rheumatic disorders, muscular pain, gout, delirium, dysmenorrhea, diabetes, and cancer. In India, it is valued as an aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, uterine stimulant, nerve tonic, diuretic, and blood purifier. In Unani^[86]and Homeopathic^[87]system of medicine it is used to manage neurological and reproductive disorders.

In Central America, Mucuna beans have been roasted and ground for decades as a coffee substitute, commonly referred to as "Nescafe." The beans are also cooked and consumed as a vegetable (Table 1). In Brazil, the seeds are used internally for PD, edema, impotence, intestinal gas, and worms, serving as a diuretic, nerve tonic, and aphrodisiac. Externally, they are applied to ulcers. The seeds exhibit astringent, laxative, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, alexipharmic, and tonic properties,

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making them beneficial in the treatment of gonorrhea, consumption, sterility, vitiated Vata conditions, and general debility. Additionally, the plant's hairs and flowers act as vermifuge agents. In Ayurveda, Mucuna seed powder is specifically utilized to treat PD. The root possesses bitter, thermogenic, emollient, stimulant, purgative, aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, febrifuge, and tonic properties.^[127]

In Ayurveda, it is valued for addressing imbalances in Vata& Pitta Doshas. Traditionally, its medicinal applications extend to treating constipation, nephropathy, dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, elephantiasis, dropsy, neuropathy, consumption, ulcers, fever, & delirium. Leaves Possessing (Table 1) aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, & tonic properties, it is beneficial for treating ulcers, inflammation, helminthiasis, cephalalgia, & general debility.

Table 1: Ethnomedicinal uses of M. pruriens in various countries

Country	Part of plant	Use	Reference
India	Pod hairs	Anthelmintic, vermifuge and treated for round worm infections	[11]
	Bark powder	Rheumatic arthritis joint pain
	roots	bitter, thermogenic, emollient, stimulant, purgative, aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, febrifuge, diuretic and tonic. Also in constipation, nephropathy, strangury, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, elephantiasis, dropsy, neuropathy, ulcers, helminthiasis, fever, delirium and for treating Parkinson’s disease
	seeds	astringent, laxative, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, tonic, also used in treating gonorrhoea, sterility, vitiated conditions ofVata, and general debility, snakebite, Uterine stimulant, Parkinson’s Disease, antidepressant, Neurological disorders, Arthritis, scorpion sting. Also consumed as vegetable.	[11] [12][10][13]
	Leaves	aphrodisiac, anthelmintic and tonic and are useful in ulcers, inflammation, helminthiasis, cephalalgia and general debility. Also used as a fodder crop. Dried leaves are smoked. Bone fractures, cough, dog-bite, madness, pain, pleuritis, ring worm, scorpion sting,snake-bite, sores and syphilis.	[11][13]
	flowers	Snake bite, Uterine stimulant, aphrodisiac	[11]
	Plant	Anthelmintic: intestinal worms, genito-urinary diseases, black tongue, round worm, gonorrhea and stomach disorders. Used in snake bites.	[14] [13]
China	Plant	Vegetable	[15]
Africa		food source i.e. pods used as a vegetable and young leaves as animal fodder	[10]
Central Africa		animal livestock	[16]
Eastern Africa		green manure and as fodder	[9]
Southern Africa		green manure and as fodder
Indonesia		used as food, animal feed
Benin (west Africa)	Whole plant	Green manure, fallow and cover crop, Also used as forage, silage, and hay.
	Seeds	As concentrate feed, roasted beans as coffee substitute, cooked beans as vegetable
	Young leaves	As vegetable
Vietnam	Plant	Cover crop & as green manure.
	seed	Substitute to coffee
	leaves	As vegetable
USA	seeds	As ornamental species	[17]
Central America	seeds	Substitute to coffee	[12]
	plant	Fallow rotations	[9]
America	Young leaves	Animal fodder	[10]
	pods	Vegetable	[10]
West Africa	Seed, flower, leaves	Snake bite Uterine stimulant Aphrodisiac	[18] [11]
Brazil	Plant/ seed	Food Parkinson’s disease, edema, impotence, intestinal gas and worms. Also used as diuretic, nerve tonic and aphrodisiac.	[18][19]
Nigeria	plant	Food	[18]
		Oral prophylactics for snakebite	[19]
		Elephantiasis	[14]
		Fallow, Minor food crop	[20]

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Philippines	Plant	Food	[18]
Ghana	Plant	Food	[18]
Ghana	Plant	Minor food crop	[20]
Malawi	Plant	Food	[18]
Asia	Plant	Food source i.e. Pods used as a vegetable and young leaves as animal fodder	[10]
Pacific Islands	Plant		[10]
West Indies	Root decoction	Elephantiasis, diuretic	[21]
Guatemala	Seed	Substitute to coffee	[12]
Mauritius	Plant	Vegetable	[12]
Mauritius	Plant	Livestock feed	[22]
Mexico	Seed	Substitute to coffee & known as nescafe	[12]
Guinea	Seed	Used as food i.e. As ragout, tau, porridge and coffee	[23]
Guinea	Seed/ Plant	Also used as a cover crop to improve soil fertility	[23]
Persia	Plant	Used to treat infertility	[24]
Malasia	Plant	Green crop	[20]
Java		Green manure crop
Bali		Green manure crop
Sumatra		Green manure crop
Mozambique		Minor food crop
Srilanka	Seed & leaves	Food	[25]
	Root	Diuretic, paralysis & other neurological disorders	[21]
	seed	Aphrodisiac, scorpion sting
	Pod hair	Anthelmintic for round worms
Zambia	Plant	Food	[22]
Malawi	Plant	Food	[22]
Thailand	Plant	Depression,dysuria, erectile dysfunction, diuretic, aphrodisiac.	[26]
Combodia	Plant	To promote restful sleep and reduce fatigue, headache, skin problems, fever, respiratory disorders, arthritis, pain relief and even mental health, aphrodisiac & antispasmodic properties.	[27]
Myanmar	leaves	Male disorders, improve lactation, stop bleeding, prevent vomiting	[28]
	fruit	Deworming, urine problems
	seed	Used as tonic, stimulate lactation, improve circulation, to increase sperm, promote vitality and weight gain, expel intestinal worms, and strengthen the senses. Some neurological problems like numbness, paralysis, stop vomiting & bleeding, scorpion & centipede bite, veneral diseases, wounds, sores
	Root	Emmenagogue, tonic, aphrodisiac, and purgative, diuretic, cholera, dysentery, edema, paralysis, atropy, elephantiasis
Nepal	Root	Animal livestock, virility, menstrual problems, aphrodisiac, diuretic, tonic, stimulant, dysentery, fever.	[29]
	Seed	Aphrodisiac, nerve tonic, anthelmintic, blood diseases, antipyretic, and purgative, scorpion sting
	leaves	Aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, useful in ulcers, inflammation, and general debility, headache
	Pod hair	Anthelmintic against roundworms

Phytochemistry(Table 3)

Overall the ethnobotanical research highlights the diverse range of phytochemicals found in Mp (Table 2)(Figure 2). These include alkaloids, amino acids, fatty acids, and other bioactive compounds, such as 1-methyl-3-carboxy-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahy-droisoquinolone, 5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-N-oxide, 5-oxyindole-3-alk-ylamine, 6-methoxyharman, alanine, arachidic acid, arginine, aspartic acid, behenic acid, β-carboline, β-sitosterol, bufotenine, choline, cystine, leucine, linoleic acid, myristic acid, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, N,N-dimethyltryptamine-N-oxide, nicotine,

oleic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, phenylalanine, phosphorus, proline, protein, saponins, serine, stearic acid, threonine, tryptamine, tyrosine, valine, and vernolic acid.^[30]

The seeds are rich in L-DOPA, a unique non-protein amino acid (3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-alanine) that serves as a direct precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine.^[13]It was first identified L-dopa as a major constituent in 1937. Apart from seeds, the L-DOPA is present in various parts of plant i.e. leaves, stem, root, pod, etc. The content varies across different parts of the plant, with fully matured seeds containing 3.6–4.2%,

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pod-pericarp 0.14–0.22%, leaves 0.17–0.35%, stems 0.19–0.31%, and roots 0.12–0.16%. Interestingly, the highest concentration of L-DOPA is found in seeds.^[31]

Beyond L-DOPA, M. pruriens contains glutathione, lecithin, gallic acid, and beta-sitosterol, along with additional amino acids. It also contains serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), nicotine, dimethyl tryptamine (DMT), bufotenine, 5-MeO-DMT, and beta-carboline.^[32]

The seeds contain alkaloids, includingmucunine, mucunadine, mucunadinine, prurienine, prur-ienidine, and nicotine. In addition, they containbeta-sitosterol, glutathione, lecithin, vernolic acid, and gallic acid. These seeds also harbor variousbioactive compounds, such as tryptamine, alkylamines, steroids, flavonoids, coumarins, and cardenolides.^[33] It also contains oils including palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids.^[33] GC-MS analysis showed the presence of phytochemicals like n-hexadecanoic acid (48.21%), squalene (7.87%), Oleic acid (7.62%), ascorbic acid (3.80%) and Octadecanoic acid (6.21%). The two tetrahydroquinoline alkaloids namely: 3-methoxy-1,1-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3.4-tetrahydroquinoline and 3-methoxy-1, 1-dimethyl-7,8-dihydroxy-1,2,3.4-tetrahydroquinoline can also be visualized.^[34]

There are four alkaloids reported in seeds i.e. L- 3- caboxy- 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline, (-)-1-methyl-3carboxy-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4 tetrahydroi-soquinoline, dimethyl-3carboxy-6, 7-dihydroxy- 1,2,3,4- tetrahydroisoquinoline and (-)-1- 3-carboxy- 1, 1- dimethyl- 7, 8- dihydroxy- 1, 2, 3, 4- tetra hydroisoquinoline^A.

Three novel lipid derivatives have recently been identified in the n-hexane extract of Mucuna pruriens seeds. These compounds include (Z)-Triactont-5,7,9-triene, (Z)-Docos-2,4,6-trien-1,8-diol, and (Z)-Docos-5-en-1-oic acid.^[35]

Leaves contain approximately 0.5% L-DOPA, 0.006% DMT, & 0.0025% 5-MeO-DMT. Given its biochemical profile, this plant plays significant role in neurological function, mood regulation, sexuality, & movement.^[11][13]It also revealed that presence of L-dopa, 6-methoxyharman, genistein, hydroxygenisteininminimal concentration. Recently three new lipid derivatives were also reported triactont- 5, 7, 9- triene, docos- 2, 4, 6- triene- 1, 8-diol & docos- 5- en- 1- oic acid. 6-methoxyharman also reported to be present^A. Other phytoconstituents include serotonin (5- hydroxy tryptamine, 5-HT), 5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP), nicotine, N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufotenine, & 5-imethoxy- N,N-dimethyl tryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) 5- imethoxy-N,N- dimethyl tryptamine-n-oxide (5- MeO-DMT-n-oxide).^[31]

Other parts of Mp including its roots, stems, & leaves, contain various phytochemicals (Table 2) such as nicotine, physostigmine, serotonin, bufotenine, choline, N-N-dimethyl tryptamine, & several indole compounds. Other compounds like methylated & non-methylated tetra hydroisoquinoline are also present.^[31] hairs on pod primarily contain amines, including 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (serotonin) & proteolytic enzyme mucuanain. Notably, serotonin is found exclusively in pods.^[33]Most of phytoconstituents exhibit neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulation, etc. activity.

Table 2: Phytoconstituents present in different parts of M. pruriens

Part	Phytoconstituent	Ref
Seed	3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-alanine (L-dopa), glutathione, lecithin, gallic acid, beta-sitosterol, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), nicotine, dimethyl tryptamine (DMT), bufotenine, 5-MeO-DMT, beta-carboline, methoxy-1,1-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3.4-tetrahydroquinoline, 3-methoxy-1, 1-dimethyl-7,8-dihydroxy-1,2,3.4-tetrahydroquinoline, palmitic acid, vernolic acid, gallic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, mucunine, mucunadine, mucunadinine, prurieninine, pruriendine, ndole-3-alkylamines-N	[31][32][33]
Leaves	3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-alanine (L-dopa), dimethyl tryptamine (DMT), 5-MeO-DMT (5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), nicotine, physostigmine, serotonin (5- hydroxy tryptamine, 5-HT), bufotenine, choline, 5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP), N, N-dimethyltryptamine(N,N-DMT), 5- imethoxy-N,N- dimethyl tryptamine-n-oxide (5- MeO-DMT-n-oxide), 6-methoxyharman, genistein, hydroxygenistein, triactont- 5, 7, 9- triene, docos- 2, 4, 6- triene- 1, 8-diol, docos- 5- en- 1- oic acid, ndole-3-alkylamines-N.	[31]
Stem	3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-alanine (L-dopa), nicotine, physostigmine, serotonin, bufotenine, choline, N-N-dimethyl tryptamine
root	3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-alanine (L-dopa), nicotine, physostigmine, serotonin, bufotenine, choline, N-N-dimethyl tryptamine, ndole-3-alkylamines-N
Pod hair	3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-alanine (L-dopa), 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (serotonin), mucuanain	[31][33]
Pod	ndole-3-alkylamines-N	[34]

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Figure 2: Phytoconstituents of M. pruriens and their neurobiological profile.

Table 3: Phytoconstituents of M. pruriens with their biological activities

Compound	Chemical formula	Biological Activity	Reference
Myristic acid	C14H28O2	Anti-inflammatory effect, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, antiparacytic, immunomodulatory, Anxiolytic	[36][37][38]
Bufotenin	C12H16N2O	Agonist of the serotonin receptor	[39]
Tryptamine	C10H12N2	Neurotransmitter	[40]
N,N-Dimethyl-5-methoxytryptamine	C13H18N2O	Neurotransmitter [depression, anxiety, stress, PTSD, obsessive-compulsive disorder]	[41]
Coumarin	C9H6O2	Anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-microbial, neuroprotective, anti-Alzheimer, analgesic, antioxidant	[42][43][44][45][46]
Choline	C5H14NO+	Neurotransmitter	[47]
Stearic acid (octadecanoicacid)	C18H36O2	Neuroprotective, antidepressant, antimicrobial	[48][49]
Serotonin	C10H12N2O	Neurotransmitter, Antidepressants; Anxiolytics	[50][51]
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine	C12H16N2	Neurotransmitter releasing agent	[40]
Nicotine	C10H14N2	Neurotransmitter	[52]
Palmitic acid ( n‑hexanoic acid)	C16H32O2	Anti-inflammatory	[53]
Arachidic acid	C20H40O2	Anti-inflammatory, neurotransmitter	[54][55]
9H-Pyrido[3,4-B]indole	C16H32O2	Anti-inflammation, antioxidant, neurotransmitter	[56][57]
Vernolic acid ((9Z)-(12S,13R)-12,13-Epoxyoctadecenoic acid)	C18H32O3	Neuromodulation, Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity	[58][59]
Oleic acid	C18H34O2	Anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation	[60][61]
Gallic acid	C7H6O5	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, Neurooprotective (Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Anxiety, Depression, Psychosis)	[62][63][73]
Sterol	C17H28O	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotection	[64][65]
glutathione	C10H17N3O6S	Antioxidant, neuroprotection, immunomodulation, apoptotic and cell protection	[66][67][73]
Levodopa	C9H11NO4	Antiparkinsonism, dopamine precursor	[68][69][73]
Beta-Sitosterol	C29H50O	Anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antinociceptive	[70]
Linolenic acid	C18H30O2	neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, antioxidant	[71][72]
Ursolic Acid	C30H48O3	antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor	[74]

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lecithin	C42H80NO8P	precursor for choline, synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine,	[75]
Squalene	C30H50	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory	[76][77]
Ascorbic acid		Neuroprotective, antioxidant	[78][79]
5-Hydroxytryptophan	C11H12N2O3	Antidepressive, precursor to serotonin, antioxidant	[80]
6‑methoxyharman	C13H12N2O	Antimicrobial, neuroprotective	[81][82]
Betulinic acid	C30H48O3	Anti-parkinsonism, neuroprotective	[126]

Pharmacological activities^{[83],[84],[85]}

Mp serves as anervine tonic and is widely used in the treating neurological disorders. In reproductive health, it functions as an aphrodisiac, enhancing libido, increasing sperm count and stimulating ovulation. Additionally, it exhibits various pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiproliferative, neuroprotective, antifungal, antimicrobial, antivenom, etc. (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Pharmacological profile of M. pruriens

Study on Parkinson’s Disease

In-vitro and In-vivo studies

Various studies show the neurobiological activities in numerous experimental studies. In vitro experiments reveal that Mp cotyledon powder enhances mitochondrial complex-I activity, while monoamine oxidase activity remains unchanged.^[88]Mp extract with reduced L-DOPA demonstrates significant neuroprotective effects across four different PD models, including Murine Microglia, Human Neuroblastoma Cells, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster (Dm). While L-DOPA plays a key role in Mp’s neuroprotective activity, other bioactive components may contribute synergistically to its therapeutic potential.

This suggests that Mp extract with lower L-DOPA content can still effectively prevent dopaminergic neuron degeneration in various experimental PD models.^[89] Studies have shown that the n-propanol extract of Mp seeds exhibits substantial neuroprotective effects, promoting the growth and survival of dopaminergic neurons in culture. These findings suggest that a whole seed extract may offer greater therapeutic potential for PD compared to pure L-dopa.^[90]

In 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induced PD model of rats showed the neuroprotective effect stronger than L-dopa. The neurorestorative potential of Mp appears linked to increased complex-I activity, alongside the presence of NADH and coenzyme Q-10 in Parkinsonian rats. Some researchers even describe Mp as a rejuvenator drug with neuroprotective properties.^[88] Studies also suggest that Mp cotyledon powder (MPCP) plays a role at the genomic level, effectively protecting both plasmid and genomic DNA from L-DOPA and copper-induced damage. This protective mechanism is thought to be linked to MPCP’s ability to chelate copper ions, reducing oxidative stress and preventing DNA strand breakage. These findings highlight MPCP’s neuroprotective potential, reinforcing its promise as a therapeutic option for PD treatment.^[91] It demonstrated that Mp exhibits strong antioxidant and metal chelating properties by effectively scavenging DPPH radicals, ABTS radicals, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), helping to reduce oxidative stress. Additionally, Mp has been shown to inhibit lipid and deoxyribose sugar oxidation, further supporting its protective role against cellular damage. Its divalent iron chelating activity contributes to its ability to regulate metal-induced oxidative stress, and importantly, Mp does not exhibit any genotoxic effects on DNA. Notably, its neuroprotective activity is independent of its symptomatic effects, suggesting broader therapeutic potential.^[92] Following study highlights importance of redox potential & metal homeostasis in PD. Disruptions in metal regulation, particularly in dopaminergic neurons, are crucial factor in neurodegeneration in toxin-induced PD models.

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The ability of Mp to help restore metal balance could play a significant neuroprotective role, potentially shielding dopaminergic neurons from progressive damage. This insight strengthens case for exploring herbal medicines that regulate metal homeostasis as promising therapeutic options for PD management.^[93] The water extract of Mp (MPE) in hemiparkinsonian rat model of PD have compared activity of MPE alone & with an additive like peripheral dopa-decarboxylase inhibitor (DDCI), benserazide (BZ) & L-DOPA alone without BZ in hemiparkinsonian rat model of PD at behavioral level. Mp contains water soluble ingredients that show either intrinsic DDCI-like activity or alleviate requirement of DDCI to improve Parkinsonism.^[94] In Paraquat (PQ)-induced neurotoxicity of mouse model of PD, it demonstrated strong antioxidant properties, helping to reduce oxidative stress in PD mice. Treatment with Mp seed extract enhanced motor behavior, likely due to its ability to mitigate oxidative damage & increase Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in substantia nigra (SN) & striatum of brain. PQ enters dopaminergic neurons via neutral amino acid transporter (NAT) & also exhibits affinity for dopamine transporter (DAT). Once inside, PQ disrupts redox potential of nigrostriatal pathways, contributing to neurodegeneration. However, Mp seed extract appears to counteract this impairment, offering potential neuroprotection in PD models (Figure 4).^[95]

Figure 4: Neuropharmacological profile of M. pruriens

Many studies indicate that Mp has anti-Parkinsonian properties in MPTP-intoxicated nonhuman primates, demonstrating a lower risk of dyskinesia than conventional treatments. Additionally, Mp helps reduce behavioral abnormalities in this primate model. Electrophysiological research suggests that at equivalent doses, Mp provides a more effective response than L-DOPA, likely due to its distinct mechanism of action. This implies that Mp contains neuroprotective components beyond L-DOPA, playing a key role in basal ganglia function. These findings suggest that Mp could be especially beneficial for PD patients experiencing L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia due to long-term use.^[96] Compared to L-DOPA, estrogen exhibits superior neuroprotective effects in the MPTP-intoxicated mouse model.^[97] The ethanolic extract of Mp seeds demonstrates strong antioxidant potential in MPTP-induced PD mouse models. The seeds demonstrate strong antioxidant potential, effectively countering reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in the MPTP model. Additionally, It also enhance motor behavior in Parkinsonian mice by stimulating catecholamine levels and boosting antioxidant activity in the nigrostriatal region. Moreover, Mp treatment improves TH expression in the SN and striatum, while also restoring normal levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in MPTP-treated animals. These findings highlight Mp’s potential to aid in neuronal recovery and oxidative stress reduction. Interestingly, this study also compared Mp’s efficacy to estrogen, revealing that Mp exhibits potent anti-Parkinsonian activity with minimal side effects compared to estrogen. This suggests that Mp could be a promising therapeutic option for PD management.^[98]

HPTLC analysis of Mp, identifies L-DOPA and Ursolic Acid (UA) showing the neuroprotective property by promoting anti-apoptotic activity as increased expression of Bcl2 and decreased levels of Bax in paraquat mouse model of PD.^[99] It also exerts anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, thereby safeguarding dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra (SN).^[100] Same was seen in MPTP model of PD where MPTP intoxication leads to an increase in iNOS expression in both SN & striatum, contributing to decline in TH expression. Mp counteracts this effect by inhibiting iNOS expression, thereby enhancing TH levels in these regions.

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Additionally, MPTP exposure elevates mRNA expression of iNOS, along with biochemical markers such as nitrite and lipid peroxidation. Mp significantly reduces these markers, reinforcing its neuroprotective potential. Hence by reducing the iNOS expression in the Parkinsonian mice model Mp shows immunomodulatory activity in PD.^[100]

It also mitigates MPTP-induced neuroinflammation by preventing the nuclear translocation of NF-κB, a key regulator of inflammatory responses. Additionally, it suppresses the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), and enzymes such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), thereby contributing to its neuroprotective effects.

The Dopamine transporter (DAT) is essential for the uptake of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), but this process leads to DAT damage, which is evidenced by immunofluorescence staining. Once inside dopaminergic neurons, Mp contributes to nigrostriatal neuron degeneration through inflammatory pathways.

MPTP intoxication further reduces the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein pAkt1, exacerbating neuronal damage. However, Mp demonstrates strong anti-inflammatory properties by enhancing DAT and pAkt1 expression while suppressing proinflammatory cytokines, primarily through the inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation indicating the anti-inflammatory potential of Mp.^[101],[102]

Carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model is widely recognized as primary test for evaluating new anti-inflammatory agents. Mp has demonstrated significant inhibition of both carrageenan-induced paw edema & cotton pellet granuloma in rats. Mp extract exhibited dose-dependent suppression of carrageenan edema, with 200 mg/kg & 400 mg/kg doses showing effects comparable to aspirin (150 mg/kg). Similarly, in cotton pellet study, Mp dose-dependently reduced granuloma formation, with 200 mg/kg & 400 mg/kg doses displaying efficacy similar to aspirin.^[103]

The anti-inflammatory properties of Mp were assessed at doses of 10 and 50 mg/kg against both acute and chronic paw edema induced by carrageenan and formalin. Mp exhibited anti-inflammatory effects, with results compared to diclofenac potassium as the standard anti-inflammatory drug.^[104]

Administration of Mp at 10 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg led to 9.80% and 47.80% inhibition respectively against acute paw edema caused by carrageenan and 6.60% and 38.80% inhibition respectively against chronic paw edema induced by formalin. The seeds exhibit notable anti-inflammatory activity, which increases with higher doses of seed powder. At doses of 2 g/kg and 3 g/kg, significant effects were observed from the 1^st to the 4^th hour, with p values < 0.005. In contrast, the 1 g/kg dose demonstrated activity only during the 3^rd and 4^th hours, with p values < 0.005 and 0.01, respectively in albino mice. No adverse effects, including mutagenicity, were detected.^[105]

The ursolic acid (UA) of Mp seed extract showed its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties in MPTP-induced Parkinsonian mouse models, UA helps reduce oxidative stress in nigrostriatal tissue, leading to improved neurobehavioral function.^[106] UA also demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory effects, similar to Mp, by inhibiting the nuclear translocation of NF-κB, thereby reducing proinflammatory cytokine expression. This mechanism plays a crucial role in preventing the progression of PD and protecting dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia through the NF-κB pathway.^[107] The UA is proved for its anti-PD activity in rotenone induces PD mouse model.^[108] UA has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties in RAW264.7 cells, a mouse monocyte macrophage cell line, by reducing the expression of iNOS and COX-2.^[109]It also exhibits anti-proliferative, anti-tumor, and antileukemic properties by suppressing NF-kB activation and inhibiting the expression of NF-kB-regulated genes such as lipoxygenase, COX-2, MMP-9, and iNOS.^[110] The activation of NF-kB, MAPKs, AP-1, and NF-AT, triggered by the interaction between the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and the T cell receptor (TCR), plays a crucial role in antigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation, cytokine secretion, and cell survival.^[111]In resting T cells, NF-kB remains in an inactive state, bound by its cytoplasmic inhibitor, IkB-α. Upon T cell activation through the TCR, protein kinase C rapidly activates IkB kinases (IKKs), leading to the phosphorylation and subsequent degradation of IkB proteins. This degradation permits the nuclear translocation of NF-kB.^[112] It has been reported that UA exerts potent anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing NF-kB, AP-1, and NF-AT.^[113]

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The bioavailability of UA and its dose dependent increase has been well characterized in the brain tissue.^[114] The methanolic extract of Mp significantly improves motor abnormalities, mitochondrial dysfunction, olfactory impairment, and synaptic deficits in a genetic model of PD. Their study, conducted on Drosophila melanogaster (Dm) which is a mutant for PINK1B9, demonstrated Mp’s neuroprotective potential. The study showed a rescue effect on PD progression in this model, highlighting Mp’s ability to counteract neurodegeneration.^[115]

At both larval and adult stages, Mp exhibits strong neuroprotective effects by correcting mitochondrial abnormalities. Additionally, research suggests that Mp extract rescues the serotonergic pathway, further supporting its role in mitochondrial restoration within the PINK1B9 Dm model of PD.^[116] The combination of Mp seed endocarp (5 g/kg) and carbidopa (50 mg/kg) demonstrated superior effectiveness compared to L-dopa in the free contralateral rotation test induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in mice.^[117]

A comparative study of Mp& WS on the PINK1B9 of Dm model reveal that these flies exhibit reduced glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, along with an unexpected elongation of telomerase length compared to wild-type flies. Treatment with Mp has been shown to enhance GSH and SOD activity while reducing telomerase length, indicating superior neuroprotective potential compared to Ws.^[118]

Clinical Study

A double-blind clinical and pharmacological study investigated the effects of Mp in PD. The findings suggest that Mp may be more effective for long-term PD management compared to conventional L-DOPA treatment, which is known to cause severe L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia with prolonged use.

However, the study had a small sample size (8 PD patients), indicating the need for further research with a larger population to validate these results.^[119] A study investigating Mp powder from roasted seeds found that a single dose exhibited potent anti-Parkinsonian effects in 18 patients with advanced PD. When compared to dispersible levodopa/benserazide treatment, Mp demonstrated similar motor improvements with fewer dyskinesias and adverse effects.

This suggests that Mp could serve as a potential alternative to conventional levodopa therapy, particularly in regions where access to pharmaceutical levodopa is limited.^[120] One of the authors was involved in the early levodopa trials conducted with Van Woert at Yale Medical School in the late 1960s. Upon returning to India, he conducted an open clinical trial using Mp seed powder (taxonomically identified with details available in reference) in 23 patients with PD. The study demonstrated both clinical improvement and the safety of levodopa.^[121] A multi-center, open clinical study on HP-200, a derivative of Mp was conducted in 60 patients with PD over a 12-week period. The results demonstrated significant improvement (p<0.001), as assessed using the comprehensive Unified Parkinson’s Disease rating scale (UPDRS).^[122]

The UPDRS showed a significant improvement in the patients who underwent eliminative (panchakarma) with palliative therapy than patients who underwent only palliative therapy. The eliminative therapy includes 28 days followed by 56 days of oral medication (total 84 days of treatment). The palliative treatment involved 84 days of oral administration of dried seeds and roots from four medicinal plants, sourced from the Government Ayurveda College Pharmacy. Specifically, powdered samples of Mp (4.5 g), Hyoscyamus reticulatus (0.75 g), Withania somnifera (14.5 g), and Sida cordifolia (14.5 g) were suspended in 200 ml of lukewarm milk and given twice daily, one hour before meals.^[123] A 48-year-old woman with PD received MP 800 mg four times daily, providing 160 mg of levodopa per day, along with synthetic carbidopa (25 mg, three times daily) for six weeks. This treatment resulted in a 13-point improvement on the MDS-UPDRS part III motor assessment, as documented through standardized scoring. This case report highlights the potential benefits of combining a dopa-decarboxylase inhibitor (DDCI) with Mp as part of a personalized approach for patients hesitant to initiate levodopa therapy.^[124] A case report compared the kinetic-dynamic profile of levodopa (LD) in two patients with PD who were chronically using standard LD therapy along with self-prescribed Mp seed extract. Researchers evaluated the effects of a dose containing LD with peripheral aromatic amino acid decarboxylase inhibitors against a nominally equivalent dose from a commercial Mp extract.

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The patients received a fasting morning dose of 100 mg LD/25 mg carbidopa (patient 1) or 100 mg LD/25 mg benserazide (patient 2), compared to 100 mg LD from Mp capsules, administered in separate sessions following a 12-hour washout of standard LD formulations. Their kinetic-dynamic LD profile was assessed through continuous plasma drug concentration measurements alongside serial motor performance evaluations. Levodopa bioavailability was significantly lower following Mucuna administration compared to standard LD formulations. In patient 1, peak plasma LD concentration (C_max) dropped from 2.0 mg/L to 1.0 mg/L, while the area under the plasma concentration-time curve declined from 137 to 33.6 mg/L per minute.

For patient 2, C_max was 0.7 mg/L after receiving LD/benserazide but was almost undetectable after taking Mp. In patient 1, this reduced LD bioavailability led to shorter duration and diminished overall drug response compared to LD/carbidopa. Meanwhile, in patient 2, no significant subacute LD motor response was observed in either condition. Quantitative analysis of the Mp formulation verified that the capsules contained 100 mg LD as labeled. The findings indicate reduced LD bioavailability in the Mp preparation, likely due to the absence of coadministered aromatic amino acid decarboxylase inhibitors. This deficiency may account for Mp’s potentially lower dyskinetic effects compared to standard LD formulations.^[125]

Conclusion

Mucuna pruriens has been utilized worldwide for decades, widely recognized for its aphrodisiac and neuroprotective properties. Scientific evidence strongly indicates that Mp contains a diverse range of bioactive compounds with antioxidant and neuroprotective effects, supporting its antiparkinsonian benefits. Further investigations into these phytoconstituents could provide deeper insights into PD management. Additionally, Mp plays a crucial role in protecting against and slowing the progression of PD. In-vitro and in-vivo studies have demonstrated its ability to promote the growth and survival of dopaminergic neurons. It also offers genomic-level protection by preventing DNA damage. Moreover, Mp enhances tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression by mitigating oxidative stress and regulating superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) activity.

Clinical studies further indicate that when Mp is administered alongside L-dopa/carbidopa, it improves PD symptoms while minimizing the side effects associated with L-dopa alone.

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J Ayu Int Med Sci 2025;10(6)187

Review Article

Parkinson's Disease

Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences

Assessing the effects of Mucuna Pruriens in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease: A Review

Kumbar A1, Gautam DNS2*

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Conclusion

References

Kumbar A¹, Gautam DNS^2*